序本文分為兩個部分，中英精簡版和中文完整版。中英精簡版，只包括了英文的原版和中文邏輯謬誤的名稱和定義，有的有詮釋或注意事項，主要源於英文原版。中文完整版，主要來源於維基百科。如果看了第一部分有理解的不太透徹的條目，可以參見完整版的條目。請善用Ctrl+F的頁面內查找功能。我為什麼要費那麼大勁弄這個東西，因為這些東西不僅是那些居心不良的人的有力武器，同時也是許多家長在教育小孩，甚至老師在教育學生時，經常犯的錯誤。我以前涉獵的也不全面，所以這次真心希望和大家一起好好學習這一內容。這個不涉及什麼敏感內容，也希望大家可以多多轉發。英文好的移步這裡https://yourlogicalfallacyis.com/，裡面有那個pdf文檔，小的大的都有，可以免費下載的。我原先是想先翻譯的，但是這個翻譯不是一般的難啊，翻譯完第一條的時候我就找到了中文維基的關於邏輯謬誤的列表: https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%AC%AC%E8%AA%A4%E5%88%97%E8%A1%A8 所以它有的我就不翻譯了。首先要解釋幾個大概念非形式謬誤和形式謬誤非形式谬误（英语：informal fallacies）意指一个推理犯了论证结构（形式）以外的错误。表现方式非形式谬误有几种常见的表现方式：错误地使用或理解语言（言词谬误）使用了不正确或有争议的事实作为前提（实质谬误）预设了有争议的隐藏前提（实质谬误）其他不合理的思路（可将这些思路形式视为“隐藏前提”，而归于前者）非形式谬误由于以上几种情形，使得论证缺乏合理性或说服力。我们需要检验论据的具体内容，才能确认非形式谬误的存在，这往往需要关于现实世界的背景知识与常识。归纳性谬误皆属非形式谬误；演绎性谬误则是形式谬误。形式谬误（Formal fallacies）是推理形式错误的论证。当一个论证的推理形式有误时，即使前提为真，也必然无法因此推理出结论为真。我们不需检验论据的具体内容，只要将推论符号化并加以检验，即可确认形式谬误的存在。所有形式谬误皆属于演绎性谬误。不当结论不当结论（拉丁语：non sequitur）系指结论无法从已建立的前提推论出来。如果一个论证犯了形式谬误，其结论即属不当结论。示例x比y大y比z大因此z比x大问题在于：根据前题，x应比z大。“z比x大”背离了上述的对确形式，这就是形式谬误。示例油条是好吃的油条是食物因此食物是好吃的问题在于：食物并不总是好吃的，这是非形式谬误。（因为油条只是食物一种，并非全部食物都是油条）不相干的谬误不相干的谬误（fallacies of relevance）或分散注意力的谬误（fallacies of distraction）是指论证的前提和结论毫无逻辑关联的不当推理方式，这种情况又称不相干的结论（irrelevant conclusion）或制造伪冒理据。亦有人将提出与原来的争议主题毫无关联的主张或论证归类为不相干的谬误，这种情况也称作歪曲论题（ignoratio elenchi）或制造伪冒论题。伪冒论题和伪冒理据有时没有明确区别，例如“这家伙是既得利益者，当然会主张为富人节税！”较似伪冒论题，而“这家伙是既得利益者，当然会主张为富人节税！因此不该接受他那件为富人节税的提议。”则较似伪冒理据。有时推理虽乍看不相干，然而在补充一些预设前提后便有关联。例如两位又脏又臭的流浪汉在公园批评时政，小明说“他们又在胡说八道了”便似不相干，然而，如果小明的推理是：“如果有足够的能力能正确批评时政，就不致于落迫到穷困潦倒，而这两个人穷困潦倒，因此他们没有能力正确批评时政，所以他们是在胡说八道”便非不相干的谬误（推理是否正确有效是另一回事，比如“如果有足够的能力能正确批评时政，就不致于落迫到穷困潦倒”可能是很多人无法接受的前提）。因此，是否不相干，须考虑当事人的思考脉络和未明言的隐藏前提。不相干的谬误和不充分的谬误都是前提无法导出结论的现象，两者常合称为推论失效或推不出（Non sequitur）。不相干谬误的分类伪冒论题转移注意力（红鲱鱼、烟雾弹）：提出非关争议重点的言论（通常乍看有关），以转移他人的注意力打稻草人：攻击和对方论述无关的论点（通常乍看有关）我有权发表意见：被他人批评时，主张自己有权利发表意见。然而，是否有发表意见的权利和意见是否正确可取（或他人是否可批评）是不相干的。废话谬误：废话谬误的其中一种形式是说出模棱两可，无论如何总是正确的语句，却没有真正回应主题，亦是不相干的谬误。伪冒理据诉诸起源：攻击论点的起源而非论点本身假资讯来源诉诸权威诉诸名人诉诸群众诉诸人身人身攻击扣帽子诉诸秽言诉诸智能诉诸好人罪恶关联希特勒归谬法诉诸后果诉诸武力一厢情愿诉诸情感：借由挑起情感驱使他人支持或反对一个论点诉诸成就诉诸富贵诉诸贫贱诉诸词源诉诸格言诉诸恐惧诉诸厌恶诉诸仇恨诉诸谄媚诉诸怜悯诉诸荒谬诉诸年代诉诸传统诉诸新潮是我所创非我所创诉诸中庸诉诸无知诉诸沉默诉诸难以置信诉诸自我知识片面辩护积非成是：主张因为其他人也做错，因此我也可以做错不当类比：有些类比推论的类比项与被类比项毫无关系，即是不相干的谬误。不相干谬误的例子不应让小孩乱跑不应让小孩乱跑（打稻草人）小明：“我并不认为孩童应该往大街上乱跑。”大文：“把小孩关起来，不让他们呼吸新鲜空气，那真是太愚蠢了。”丈夫对你好不好丈夫对你好不好（转移话题）甲：丈夫对你好不好？乙：为了让该孩子有较好的教育环境，我们打算明年移民澳洲。超速是违法的超速是违法的（转移话题）甲：超速是违法的！乙：现在已是三更半夜，路上又没有车，此时应该要允许超速。“法律是否允许三更半夜超速”和“法律是否应该允许三更半夜超速”是不同的议题。甲讨论的是前者，乙却转移到后者。支持总统直选吗支持总统直选吗（废话）甲：你支持开放总统直选吗？乙：从争取民主的角度来看，开放总统直选是值得支持的，但反对者的意见也值得考虑。24條常見謬誤中英精簡版1.稻草人论证錯誤表述他人的論據，使之容易被攻擊通過誇張，錯誤表述，或者完全偽造他人的論據，得以使自己顯得有理有據而位於有利位置，不過這種不誠實的行為用於暗中破壞合理的辯論。StrawmanMisrepresenting someone’s argument to make it easier to attack.By exaggerating, misrepresenting, or just completely fabricating someone＇s argument, it＇s much easier to present your own position as being reasonable, but this kind of dishonesty serves to undermine rational debate.After Will said that we should put more money into health and education, Warren responded by saying that he was surprised that Will hates our country so much that he wants to leave it defenceless by cutting military spending.2.滑坡谬误（Slippery slope）是一种非形式谬误，使用连串的因果推论，却夸大了每个环节的因果强度，而得到不合理的结论。有些说法将连续体谬误也归为滑坡谬误，但近来已较少这样使用。滑坡谬误的典型形式为“如果发生Ａ，接着就会发生Ｂ，接着就会发生Ｃ，接着就会发生Ｄ，……，接着就会发生Ｚ”，而后通常会明示或暗示地推论“Ｚ不应该发生，因此我们不应允许Ａ发生”。Ａ至Ｂ、Ｂ至Ｃ、Ｃ至Ｄ、……等因果关系好似一个个“坡”，从Ａ推论至Ｚ的过程就像一个滑坡。滑坡谬误的问题在于，每个“坡”的因果强度不一，有些因果关系只是可能、而非必然，有些因果关系相当微弱，有些因果关系甚至是未知或缺乏证据的，因而即使Ａ发生，也无法一路滑到Ｚ，Ｚ并非必然（或极可能）发生。相对地，若有充足证据显示每个“坡”都有合理、强烈的因果连结，即不构成滑坡谬误。Slippery SlopeAsserting that if we allow A to happen, then Z will consequently happen too, therefore A should not happen.The problem with this reasoning is that it avoids engaging with the issue at hand, and instead shifts attention to baseless extreme hypotheticals. The merits of the original argument are then tainted by unsubstantiated conjecture.Colin Closet asserts that if we allow same-sex couples to marry, then the nextthing we know we’ll be allowing people to marry their parents, their cars and even monkeys.3.片面辩护（special pleading）是一种非形式谬误，主张某些情况是一般性原则的例外，却提出无关的理由。人類是一種很有趣的生物，他們對犯錯誤有一種愚蠢的厭惡。許多人寧願創造一些方法以能夠持堅陳舊的觀念，也不願意欣然接受通過更好的理解去改變自己的想法所能帶來的益處。（意思大概就是寧願千方百計的堅持自己以前的想法，也不願意改變自己的想法，儘管改變想法可以明明可以使自己獲益）Special PleadingMoving the goalposts or making up exceptions when a claim is shown to be false.Humans are funny creatures and have a foolish aversion to being wrong. Rather than appreciate the beneﬁts of being able to change one’s mind through better understanding, many will invent ways to cling to old beliefs.Edward Johns claimed to be psychic, but when his ‘abilities’ were tested under proper scientiﬁc conditions, they magically disappeared. Edward explained this saying that one had to have faith in his abilities for them to work.4.赌徒谬误（The Gambler＇s Fallacy）亦称为蒙地卡罗谬误（The Monte Carlo Fallacy），是一种概率谬误，主张由于某事发生了很多次，因此接下来不太可能发生；或者由于某事很久没发生，因此接下来很可能会发生。赌徒谬误的思维方式像是如此：抛一枚公平的硬币，连续出现越多次反面朝上，下次抛出正面的概率就越大，抛出反面的概率就越小。The Gambler＇s FallacyBelieving that ‘runs’ occur to statistically independent phenomena such as roulette wheel spins.This commonly believed fallacy can be said to have helped create a city in the desert of Nevada USA. Though the overall odds of a ‘big run’ happening may be low, each spin of the wheel is itself entirely independent from the last.Red had come up six times in a row on the roulette wheel, so Greg knew that it was close to certain that black would be next up. Su ering an economic form of natural selection with this thinking, he soon lost all of his savings.5.假两难（推理、论证）（False dilemma），又称非黑即白（black-or-white）、伪（假）二分法、伪二择（选）一法、伪两面法、双刀法等，是提出少数选项（一般是两个，但有可能是三个或更多）要人从中择一，但这些选择并未涵盖所有的可能性。非黑即白是一种非形式谬误。非黑即白是基于对排中律的误用。排中律只适合衡量非此即彼的二元观念（例如“对与错”、“真与假”等等），用于其他范畴未必恰当。要破解此类谬误，可证明除了论证中提出的选项外，还有其他可能。有时假两难是被刻意提出以迫使他人做出选择的，但其他时候它是因不小心忽略其他可能性而成，而非蓄意造成的。Black-or-whiteWhere two alternative states are presented as the only possibilities, when in fact more possibilities exist.Also known as the false dilemma, this insidious tactic has the appearance of forming a logical argument, but under closer scrutiny it becomes evident that there are more possibilities than the either/or choice that is presented.Whilst rallying support for his plan to fundamentally undermine citizens’ rights, the Supreme Leader told the people they were either on his side, or on the side of the enemy.6.因果谬误（Causal Fallacy）、虚假原因（英语：false cause）、或乱赋因果（拉丁语：non causa pro causa），是一种非形式谬误，泛指各种未有充分证据便轻率断定因果关系的不当推论。許多人會將事物之間的聯繫（這些事物一起發生或依次發生）混淆為它們之間的因果（一個事物實際上導致了另一個事物的發生）。有時候，這種聯繫只是偶然的，或者它是可以被歸因於一個常見的原因。False causePresuming that a real or perceived relationship between things means that one is the cause of the other.Many people confuse correlation (things happening together or in sequence) for causation (that one thing actually causes the other to happen). Sometimes correlation is coincidental, or it may be attributable to a common cause.Pointing to a fancy chart, Roger shows how temperatures have been rising overthe past few centuries, whilst at the same time the numbers of pirates havebeen decreasing; thus pirates cool the world and global warming is a hoax.7.诉诸人身谬误（英语：ad hominem fallacy），指借由与当前论题无关之个人特质，如人格、动机、态度、地位、阶级或处境等，作为驳斥对方或支持己方论证的理据。诉诸人身又称作“对人不对事”、“因人废言”或“因人设事”、“以人废言”。诉诸人身可诉诸负面特质（也称作人身攻击谬误）、正面特质、或中立特质。人生攻擊的結果可能導致在實際上沒有涉及到別人論據本身的情況下中傷他們。Ad HominemAttacking your opponent’s character or personal traits in an attempt to undermine their argument.Ad hominem attacks can take the form of overtly attacking somebody, or casting doubt on their character. The result of an ad hom attack can be to undermine someone without actually engaging with the substance of their argument.After Sally presents an eloquent and compelling case for a more equitable taxation system, Sam asks the audience whether we should believe anything from a woman who isn’t married, was once arrested, and smells a bit weird.8.既定观点问题（英语：loaded question），有时也称复合问题（英语：complex question；拉丁语：plurium interrogationum），系在问题中掺入预设的观点，对方一旦回答，就等同承认这些观点是真的。如果回答者并未同意该预设，仅是因正面回答问题而被迫承认，以其回答证成预设则属谬误。既定观点问题謬誤對於轉移合理辯論路線特別有效，這是由於人們易於激動或是易被煽動的本性。既定观点问题的受者會被迫加強他們的自我防範，從而可能導致慌亂或是處於不利地位。Loaded QuestionAsking a question that has an assumption built into it so that it can’t be answered without appearing guilty.Loaded question fallacies are particularly eff ective at derailing rational debates because of their inﬂammatory nature - the recipient of the loaded question is compelled to defend themselves and may appear ﬂustered or on the back foot.Grace and Helen were both romantically interested in Brad. One day, with Brad sitting within earshot, Grace asked in an inquisitive tone whether Helen was having any problems with a fungal infection.9.诉诸群众（拉丁语：Argumentum ad populum）是一种逻辑谬误、一种社会心理的状态、也是一种宣传的技巧，常被称为“从众”，代表人类害怕在社会中被孤立，因而向社会其他多数靠拢的一种过程。诉诸群众尚有许多称呼，如诉诸多数（appeal to the majority）、诉诸大数（Argumentum ad numerum）、诉诸民主（appeal to the democracy）、诉诸信念（appeal to belief）、共识谬误（consensus fallacy）、乐队花车谬误（bandwagon fallacy）等等。這種論據的瑕疵在於一個觀念的流行性跟它的正確性沒有絲毫關聯。如果真有這種關聯的話，那麼根據流行的觀念，地球在歷史上很長的時間裡確實就是（天圓）地方的。BandwagonAppealing to popularity or the fact that many people do something as an attempted form of validation.The ﬂaw in this argument is that the popularity of an idea has absolutely no bearing on its validity. If it did, then the Earth would have made itself ﬂat for most of history to accommodate this popular belief.Shamus pointed a drunken ﬁnger at Sean and asked him to explain how so many people could believe in leprechauns if they’re only a silly old superstition. Sean, however, had had a few too many Guinness himself and fell off his chair.10.窃取论点（英语：begging the question 或 question begging；拉丁语：petitio principii），又称乞求论点 、乞题、丐题等等，是在论证时把不该视为理所当然的命题预设为理所当然，这是一种不当预设的非形式谬误。這個邏輯性不連貫的論據通常在人們已有一個根深蒂固的假設時發生。因此他們會將已經佔據他們腦海的觀點理解為是別人給出的。循環論證壞大多數情況下是因為它不是非常好。Begging The QuestionA circular argument in which the conclusion is included in the premise.This logically incoherent argument often arises in situations where people have an assumption that is very ingrained, and therefore taken in their minds as a given. Circular reasoning is bad mostly because it’s not very good.The word of Zorbo the Great is ﬂawless and perfect. We know this because it says so in The Great and Infallible Book of Zorbo’s Best and Most Truest Things that are Deﬁnitely True and Should Not Ever Be Questioned.11.诉诸权威（英语：Appeal to Authority；拉丁语：Argumentum ad Verecundiam）或伪托权威、援假权威，是一种特殊类型的归纳论证，通常以统计三段论的形式来表达。虽然某些类别的诉诸权威有时会构成有力的归纳论点，但是诉诸权威通常都是被误用的非常重要的一點是這種謬誤不應當用於無視專家或科學的論述觀點。訴諸權威不是正當的論據，但也不能因此認為忽視一個被證實為在某個問題方面學識淵博的專家的主張是合理的，除非你跟他在那個方面有著類似層次的認識。Appeal to AuthoritySaying that because an authority thinks something, it must therefore be true.It’s important to note that this fallacy should not be used to dismiss the claims of experts, or scientiﬁc consensus. Appeals to authority are not valid arguments, but nor is it reasonable to disregard the claims of experts who have a demonstrated depth of knowledge unless one has a similar level of understanding.Not able to defend his position that evolution ‘isn’t true’ Bob says that he knows a scientist who also questions evolution (and presumably isn’t herself a primate).12.诉诸自然（英语：appeal to nature；拉丁语：argumentum ad naturam）是一种非形式谬误，系主张某个现象很自然，因而是可取的；或主张某个现象不自然，因而是不可取的。許多自然的東西也被認為是好的，但這個可以使我們死思考產生偏見。 不過自然本身並不意味着好貨壞。比如，謀殺可以被認為是非常自然的，不過這部意味著它是正當的。Appeal to NatureMaking the argument that because something is ‘natural’ it is therefore valid, justiﬁed, inevitable, good, or ideal.Many ‘natural’ things are also considered ‘good’, and this can bias our thinking; but naturalness itself doesn’t make something good or bad. For instance murder could be seen as very natural, but that doesn’t mean it’s justiﬁable.The medicine man rolled into town on his bandwagon o ering various natural remedies, such as very special plain water. He said that it was only natural that people should be wary of ‘artiﬁcial’ medicines like antibiotics.13.合成谬误/分割谬误合成谬误（英语：Fallacy of composition），又译为构成谬误，是一种非形式谬误，系基于整体中的某些部分具有某性质，而推论整体本身具备该性质，这是一种以偏概全。分割谬误（Division Fallacy）是一种非形式谬误，系基于整体拥有某性质，而推论其中的部分或全部个体都具备该性质，这是一种以全概偏。通常情況下，某事物的某一部分是真實的可以意味著它的全部是真實的，但是因為這並不是所有的情況，所以有時候不能夠因為它的就某一部分是真實的假定它的全部是真實的Composition /DivisionAssuming that what’s true about one part of something has to be applied to all, or other parts of it.Often when something is true for the part it does also apply to the whole, but because this isn’t always the case it can’t be presumed to be true. We must show evidence for why a consistency will exist.Daniel was a precocious child and had a liking for logic. He reasoned that atoms are invisible, and that he was made of atoms and therefore invisible too. Unfortunately, despite his thinky skills, he lost the game of hide and go seek.14.轶事谬误（Anecdotal Fallacy），系指根据轶事证据做出一般化的推论。由于传闻通常不具好的代表性，据此做出的一般化推论通常是不可靠的。通常情況下，相比於理解連續統一整體中的差異性，用某人的證言去使人們直接相信反而要容易得多。科學的和統計學的方法大多數情況下總是比個人的觀點和經驗更加精確。AnecdotalUsing personal experience or an isolated example instead of a valid argument, especially to dismiss statistics.It’s often much easier for people to believe someone’s testimony as opposed to understanding variation across a continuum. Scientiﬁc and statistical measures are almost always more accurate than individual perceptions and experiences.Jason said that that was all cool and everything, but his grandfather smoked, like, 30 cigarettes a day and lived until 97 - so don’t believe everything you read about meta analyses of sound studies showing proven causal relationships.15.诉诸情感（appeal to emotion）是一种非形式谬误，系指借由操纵人们的情感，而非有效的逻辑，以求赢得争论的论证方式。儘管一個有效且理性的論據有時候也會有情感的方面，但是人們必須當心情感不可以模糊或代替理性。Appeal to EmotionManipulating an emotional response in place of a valid or compelling argument.Appeals to emotion include appeals to fear, envy, hatred, pity, guilt, and more. Though a valid, and reasoned, argument may sometimes have an emotional aspect, one must be careful that emotion doesn’t obscure or replace reason.Luke didn’t want to eat his sheep’s brains with chopped liver and brussels sprouts, but his father told him to think about the poor, starving children in a third world country who weren’t fortunate enough to have any food at all.16.你也一样（拉丁语：tu quoque）、你也是或诉诸伪善（英语：appeal to hypocrisy）是一种诉诸人身的非形式谬误，系主张某人也做了他所批评的事，因此其论点无效。“你也一样”谬误是一种积非成是，也是诉诸人身谬误。這個謬誤通常被作為一種有效的轉移話題的手段使用，因為它可以讓被控訴人從不得不防禦自己的焦灼中解脫出來，而把焦點轉移回到控訴人自己身上。Tu QuoqueAvoiding having to engage with criticism by turning it back on the accuser - answering criticism with criticism.Literally translating as ‘you too’ this fallacy is commonly employed as an effective red herring because it takes the heat off the accused having to defend themselves and shifts the focus back onto the accuser themselves.Nicole identiﬁed that Hannah had committed a logical fallacy, but instead of addressing the substance of her claim, Hannah accused Nicole of committing a fallacy earlier on in the conversation.17.转移举证责任，不为自己的论点提出理由，而要求质疑的人提出理由证明自己的论点是错的。举证责任應該是由提出主張的人承擔，而不是讓別人去證偽。不能夠或不願意去證偽一個主張不代表那個主張是正當的（然而我們必須總是依照最佳的可獲得的證據）Burden of ProofSaying that the burden of proof lies not with the person making the claim, but with someone else to disprove.The burden of proof lies with someone who is making a claim, and is not upon anyone else to disprove. The inability, or disinclination, to disprove a claim does not make it valid (however we must always go by the best available evidence).Bertrand declares that a teapot is, at this very moment, in orbit around the Sun between the Earth and Mars, and that because no one can prove him wrong his claim is therefore a valid one.18.没有真正的苏格兰人（No true Scotsman）或诉诸纯洁（appeal to purity）是一种非形式谬误，系指在原来的普遍宣称遇到反例时，提出一个理想、纯静的标准以为其辩护的论证方式。這個謬誤經常用作使一個要點缺失從而得出最終判斷。鑑於一個批判是正當的，但是卻不想去承認它， 從而援引新的標準來將自己或某人的論據與那個批判失去關聯性。No True ScotsmanMaking what could be called an appeal to purity as a way to dismiss relevant criticisms or ﬂaws of an argument.This fallacy is often employed as a measure of last resort when a point has been lost. Seeing that a criticism is valid, yet not wanting to admit it, new criteria are invoked to dissociate oneself or one’s argument.Angus declares that Scotsmen do not put sugar on their porridge, to which Lachlan points out that he is a Scotsman and puts sugar on his porridge. Furious, like a true Scot, Angus yells that no true Scotsman sugars his porridge.19.德州神枪手谬误（Texas sharpshooter fallacy），是一种因果谬误，原用以形容流行病学上的群集错觉，后衍伸泛指将统计上随机产生的群集独立出来，宣称有统计显著性的谬误。通俗地讲，就是在大量的数据/证据中刻意地挑选出对自己的观点有利的数据/证据，而将其余对自己不利的数据/证据弃之不用。德州神枪手谬误词源自一个典故：有个德州人朝着自己的谷仓射了许多子弹，在弹孔最密集的地方画一个圈，然后自称是神枪手。群集通常是自然呈現的，並不一定就暗示了原因。The Texas SharpshooterCherry-picking data clusters to suit an argument, or ﬁnding a pattern to ﬁt a presumption.This ‘false cause’ fallacy is coined after a marksman shooting at barns and then painting a bullseye target around the spot where the most bullet holes appear. Clusters naturally appear by chance, and don’t necessarily indicate causation.The makers of Sugarette Candy Drinks point to research showing that of the ﬁve countries where Sugarette drinks sell the most units, three of them are in the top ten healthiest countries on Earth, therefore Sugarette drinks are healthy.20.谬误论证（argument from fallacy）又称争论逻辑、诉诸逻辑（英语：argument to logic，拉丁语：argumentum ad logicam）、谬误谬误（fallacy fallacy）、谬误学家的谬误（fallacist＇s fallacy），是一种形式谬误，主张由于某论证无效，因而其结论为假。完全有可能做出一個錯誤的斷言，然而用連貫的邏輯為其辯護，正如有可能做出一個真實的斷言，並用多種謬誤和不良的論據去為其證明。The Fallacy FallacyPresuming a claim to be necessarily wrong because a fallacy has been committed.It is entirely possibly to make a claim that is false yet argue with logical coherency for that claim, just as is possible to make a claim that is true and justify it with various fallacies and poor arguments.Recognising that Amanda had committed a fallacy in arguing that we should eat healthy food because a nutritionist said it was popular, Alyse said we should therefore eat bacon double cheeseburgers every day.21.诉诸难以置信（Argument from incredulity）是一种不相干的谬误，主张由于自己无法解释及理解一件事，因此那件事不是真的。諸如生物進化是通過自然選擇這樣的主題，在一個人能夠恰當地掌握這些之前需要具備很好的大量的對於這方面的認知。 這個謬誤通常被用於這類認知。Personal IncredulitySaying that because one ﬁnds something di cult to understand, it’s therefore not true.Subjects such as biological evolution via the process of natural selection require a good amount of understanding before one is able to properly grasp them; this fallacy is usually used in place of that understanding.Kirk drew a picture of a ﬁsh and a human and with e usive disdain asked Richard if he really thought we were stupid enough to believe that a ﬁsh somehow turned into a human through just, like, random things happening over time.22.歧义谬误是由于语言歧义导致无效推理的现象，是一种言词谬误。政治家通常因為應用歧義去唔到而有罪，如果他們在有复核的情況下，將會在過後指向他們是如何技術性地、不直率地撒謊。這種犯罪是一種特別具有欺騙性和預謀性的謬誤AmbiguityUsing double meanings or ambiguities of language to mislead or misrepresent the truth.Politicians are often guilty of using ambiguity to mislead and will later point to how they were technically not outright lying if they come under scrutiny. It’s a particularly tricky and premeditated fallacy to commit.When the judge asked the defendant why he hadn＇t paid his parking ﬁnes, he said that he shouldn＇t have to pay them because the sign said ＇Fine for parking here＇ and so he naturally presumed that it would be ﬁne to park there.23.起源谬误（genetic fallacy）或基因谬误是一种不相干的谬误，系针对论述的起源攻击，而非针对该论述本身攻击。例如攻击提出论证的人、攻击某论证起于落后的年代、根据某个字词的词源断言其意义等等圍繞某事的起源訴諸偏見是另一種紅鯡魚謬誤。這種謬誤同訴諸人身有相同的功能，不過它卻是用於對於某事來源或背景的精確性層面。GeneticJudging something good or bad on the basis of where it comes from, or from whom it comes.To appeal to prejudices surrounding something’s origin is another red herring fallacy. This fallacy has the same function as an ad hominem, but applies instead to perceptions surrounding something’s source or context.Accused on the 6 o’clock news of corruption and taking bribes, the senator said that we should all be very wary of the things we hear in the media, because we all know how very unreliable the media can be.24.诉诸中庸（英语：argument to moderation；拉丁语：argumentum ad temperantiam），是假定从多个冲突观点中找出折衷观点就是最佳解的谬误。然而，许多时候折衷的选择会更不切实际、更不可取。很多時候，真相的確是在兩個極端之間，不過這個可能會我們的思考產生偏倚：有的時候，某事物僅僅是不真實的，關於它的折中也是不真實的。真相與謊言的中點仍然是謊言。Middle GroundSaying that a compromise, or middle point, between two extremes must be the truth.Much of the time the truth does indeed lie between two extreme points, but this can bias our thinking: sometimes a thing is simply untrue and a compromise of it is also untrue. Half way between truth and a lie, is still a lie.Holly said that vaccinations caused autism in children, but her scientiﬁcally well-read friend Caleb said that this claim had been debunked and proven false. Their friend Alice o ered a compromise that vaccinations cause some autism.